2011年5月26日 星期四

太空科學新要角——立方衛星

立方衛星低廉的成本、標準化的簡單構造,讓人人都能實行自己的太空計畫。
重點提要
■標準化的人造衛星製作技術,已經使太空任務成本更低廉、技術也更容易取得。 ■這類總體積1000立方公分、重量一公斤的立方衛星(CubeSat)通常由許多通用的元件組成,可以跟著其他任務的火箭一起升空。 ■CubeSat的開發期間可短至一年,還可連接太空感測器網絡,大多數也會在短時間內落回地面,因此不會增加軌道上的太空垃圾。 ■各大學、公司、國家,甚至有興趣的個人,都可利用CubeSat執行嚴謹的科學任務,從大氣物理到微重力實驗,都可藉此進行研究。
自從50多年前蘇聯的史波尼克號(Sputnik)揭開人造衛星時代的序幕以來,天空就一直是大型機構的勢力範圍。目前在地球軌道上取得一席之地的幾千枚人造衛星,幾乎都是各國政府和大企業執行大規模計畫的成果。幾十年來,人造衛星一代比一代複雜、昂貴,設計耗時更久,而且還必須有成本高昂的發射裝備、全球監控站、任務執行專家和研究中心做為後盾,才能竟其全功。
不過,電子學、太陽能和其他相關科技近幾年來的進展,讓我們把人造衛星的尺寸大幅縮小了。稱為「立方衛星」(CubeSat)的新型人造衛星不僅可讓小型衛星的設計大幅簡化並標準化,還可將單一人造衛星的開發、升空及運作成本降低到10萬美元以下,與美國航太總署(NASA)或歐洲太空總署(ESA)的典型任務預算相比,只是九牛一毛。
CubeSat的大小和玩具紙盒相仿,而直到最近,大多數科學家也仍認為CubeSat和玩具相差無幾。CubeSat的基本構想是提供人造衛星尺寸和重量的標準規格,再將許多顆人造衛星(分別由不同的科學家、研究生和工程師團隊製作)整合成單一火箭酬載,然後附加在成本高出許多、又有一點多餘空間的其他任務上一起升空。如此一來,火箭升空的高昂費用可以由所有參與的機構共同承擔。另外,CubeSat的設計標準可讓參與機構共用設計特性與技術,以及購買現成的組成元件。
CubeSat概念問世至今,美國、亞洲、歐洲和拉丁美洲的科學家已經成功發射了至少20多枚CubeSat,功能五花八門,從微重力環境下的生物醫學實驗到研究高層大氣都有。CubeSat成本低、開發時程短、使用者遍佈全球,又適合當做教學工具,因此越來越普及,大學研究團隊(成員通常是大學生及研究生)在世界各地迅速增加。CubeSat也使小國家、新創公司,甚至高中研究團隊有機會發展自己的太空計畫。發射成本或許很快就能降低到一萬美元左右,就連沒有接觸過太空科技的人也有機會參與。我們認為,CubeSat將在太空科技領域產生如同30年前蘋果二號在電腦領域發揮的效用:將眾所周知但以往門檻甚高的技術,下放到一般大眾手中。
CubeSat標準化
重量只有數公斤的小型人造衛星,從太空時代一開始就已出現,史波尼克一號的重量僅略多於80公斤。但是隨著火箭推力越來越大,人造衛星也變得更大、更複雜,目前常見的通訊或研究衛星往往重達數公噸。
在此同時,微型人造衛星,也就是重量介於10~100公斤的人造衛星,已經被排擠到太空科學的邊緣,但一直沒有完全消失。舉例來說,大氣科學家使用這類人造衛星探索電離層,也就是地球表面上方80~600公里左右的大氣層,而業餘無線電軌道衛星「奧斯卡」(OSCAR)更從1960年代就開始替「火腿族」(無線電愛好者的暱稱)傳遞訊號。但是直到1980年代,在電子微型化和精密製造技術與微機電系統(例如常見於iphone和汽車安全氣囊等裝置中的超小型加速度感測器)發展的輔助下,小型人造衛星的潛力才開始發揮出來。
到了1990年代晚期,我們已經有能力製作出僅一公斤、而且實際可用的人造衛星了,它可大幅降低開發和發射費用,同時激勵研發人員探索新的任務設計方式。NASA也在積極鼓勵工程師提出成本更低的太空科學研究方法。
因此,本文作者之一特維格斯(當時任職於美國史丹佛大學太空與系統開發實驗室)和加州州立理工大學教授蘇瓦力(Jordi Puig-Suari)發現,如果要實現小型人造衛星的概念,必須進行一些標準化工作,就像原始碼開放行動一樣,以低廉成本創造出世界級的軟體。因此在2000年,這兩位工程師發表了CubeSat規格。這份10頁的文件確立了幾項簡單的原則:每個單位必須為邊長10公分的正方體(可增減1/10毫米),因此總體積為1000立方公分;重量不可超過一公斤;CubeSat也可製作成長方形,佔用二或三個實體單位的空間,稱為2U或3U CubeSat。
CubeSat以金屬框架保護容納其中的電子裝置、儀器、通訊器材和電力系統等。另外,CubeSat通常會在數個面裝置太陽能板,還會有天線從一端伸出。某些衛星可能不久後就會具備簡單的飛行系統,細小的噴嘴可穩定衛星的姿態,並讓衛星對準所需的方向。
由於採用模組化設計,這種衛星在升空時可裝置在標準框架中,框架每次可容納數枚衛星,就像禮盒裡的糖果一樣,火箭進入軌道之後,就將它們彈射出去。2003年,蘇瓦力發表了這類軌道部署器的設計,它能將CubeSat放置在美國及俄羅斯太空機構發射的火箭內,妥善地升空並佈放。同年,位於舊金山的Pumpkin公司推出第一組CubeSat套件,包含主機板、金屬框架、電池和太陽能板等立即可用的元件,讓幾乎不具太空任務經驗的科學家也能很快展開工作。
CubeSat的內部也跟製作CubeSat的團隊一樣來自四面八方。打開一枚衛星,或許會看到許多航太硬體和現有技術、客製化的科學儀器、取自先前太空任務的硬體、當地電子材料行買來的無線電設備、從個人電腦拆下或在eBay上買來的電腦硬體等。
剛開始,CubeSat社群成員是以彼此的經驗、成功故事和設計技巧為基礎,新成員很快就會發現,CubeSat社群除了酬載之外,什麼都可以共享。開發人員發現有用的點子時(例如某款火腿族無線電設備在太空中的有效距離比另一款來得長),會跟其他CubeSat設計人員分享。
不久之後,我們發現學生也很喜歡CubeSat,而且能從中學到很多。參與傳統航太工程計畫的學生執行的是理論計畫,或設計大系統中的一小部份,這些東西往往要到他們畢業多年後才會進入太空。相反的,CubeSat可以讓學生親身參與,可以由一個團隊在一間房間中合力建造,一、兩年內就能製作出實際可用的人造衛星,非常適合當做論文主題。學生必須自己負責CubeSat計畫,大學部學生也可擔任專案經理和任務專員,可以看到自己的作品進入太空,是激勵大家努力工作的誘因。對於教育工作者而言,CubeSat相當有吸引力,因為它的工程問題和大型衛星相同,可讓學生更深入、更完整地認識人造衛星的設計。

2011年3月14日 星期一

Signapore casino

SINGAPORE (AFP) – Just one year after opening its first casino, Singapore has emerged as Asia's hottest new gambling capital with a revamped cityscape and billions of dollars pouring into the economy.
"Singapore has made a dramatic entry to the casino gaming market," financial consultancy PricewaterhouseCoopers said in a report estimating the city-state's casino gaming market at $2.8 billion in 2010.
The first casino opened in Malaysian-controlled Resorts World Sentosa on February 14, 2010, with US-based Las Vegas Sands following two months later as the world economy was still clawing itself out of recession.
Resorts World Sentosa also boasts Southeast Asia's first Universal Studios theme park, while Marina Bay Sands has become an architectural icon with its three curving towers topped off by a "SkyPark" shaped like a sleek ocean liner.
Thanks in large measure to the casino complexes, tourist arrivals in Singapore last year hit 11.6 million, breaking by far the previous record of 10.3 million set in 2007.
Most of the visitors came from the Asia-Pacific region, with mainland China, Australia, Indonesia and India together accounting for 53 percent.
Tourist spending helped fuel Singapore's 14.7 percent gross domestic product (GDP) growth in 2010, making it Asia's fastest-growing economy, after a 1.3 percent contraction in 2009.
PricewaterhouseCoopers predicted that Singapore would overtake South Korea and Australia this year to become the second-largest Asia-Pacific casino market behind traditional leader Macau.
"In 2011, with a full year's operation for both resorts, we expect revenues to reach $5.5 billion, growing to $8.3 billion by 2014," it said.
When the government lifted a ban on casinos, they were euphemistically called "integrated resorts" or "IRs" amid an outcry from civic and church groups worried about the social impact of large-scale gambling.
"Definitely with the opening of the casinos, we have seen an increase in gambling addicts seeking help," said Tan Lye Keng, executive director of One Hope Centre, a Christian welfare organisation for gambling addicts.
He told AFP that the Sg$100 ($78) entry levy imposed on Singaporean citizens and permanent residents failed to deter gamblers.
Families can also apply for problem gamblers to be banned from entering the casino premises.
But the resorts have also created thousands of new jobs for Singaporeans, and tourists rave over non-gambling attractions like Universal Studios.
"Visitor arrivals have really come in stronger and I think that's a direct spinoff from having the IRs on shore," Barclays Capital senior regional economist Leong Wai Ho told AFP.
He said the resorts were contributing in the region of 0.3 to 0.4 percent of GDP, with the potential for that to increase to 0.7 percent in the near future.
"That's only when both casinos, both IRs are up and running fully, so we're not there yet actually. Contributions to date have been significant, but I think the potential is for more to come," he said.
In the latest financial statement issued by parent company Las Vegas Sands, Marina Bay Sands was shown to have raked in $1.02 billion in revenues from its casino operations in 2010.
Resorts World Sentosa declined to disclose specific casino revenue numbers, but its total revenue stood at $1.53 billion for the nine-month period ending September 30, 2010.
Las Vegas-based casino industry analyst Jonathan Galaviz estimated casino revenue constitutes "at least 60 percent" of the total for Resorts World Sentosa.
"Tourism is a critical economic component for Singapore's economy," Galaviz told AFP.
"The exercise of legalising casino gaming, in the context of integrated resort development, has turned out to be a successful endeavour."
But Galaviz cautioned that Singapore should not get carried away by the success of the casino-powered resorts.
"I believe from a public policy perspective, that Singapore should protect itself from gaining the perception by the outside world that it is a casino-centric country," he said.
"For example, the financial sector in Singapore needs Singapore to be known as a stable, serious, and very ethical place for doing business," he added.

2011年3月3日 星期四

slides

My 1st Slides Slideshow: Kmingtsai’s trip from Taipei, Taiwan to Taoyuan was created by TripAdvisor. See another Taoyuan slideshow. Create your own stunning free slideshow from your travel photos.

2011年3月2日 星期三

2011年2月28日 星期一

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